Bioingeniería y soluciones basadas en la naturaleza para estabilizar taludes carreteros bajo lluvias extremas: revisión estructurada de desempeño, mantenimiento y escalabilidad.

Gabriel Montufar

doi:10.22490/25394088.11964

Vol. 20 No. 2 (2026)

Published 2026-09-23

license

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

When the Publicaciones e Investigaciones Journal receives an original study or article from its author(s), whether by email, postal service, or the platforms available for said purpose, know that it may be published in physical or electronic formats in national or international archives, databases, or SIRES. As such, Publications and Research authorizes the reproduction and citation of said material, provided that the description of information is carried out in conformity with bibliographic norms, and mention the corresponding names, authors, article, issue, and pages. Publications and Research, in advance, expresses that the information, concepts, and methods are the responsibility of the author(s). As such, the UNAD does not have any influence whatsoever over that expressed in the manuscript.

Review article

Bioengineering and Nature-Based Solutions for Stabilizing Road Slopes During Extreme Rainfall: A Structured Review of Performance, Maintenance, and Scalability

DOI: https://doi.org/10.22490/25394088.11964

Gabriel Montufar Universidad de Panamá

Pre-print (Spanish)

Abstract
References

Road cut and fill slopes concentrate runoff, expose poorly structured soils, and undergo rapid wetting cycles that can trigger erosion, suction loss, and shallow landslides. This systematic review assesses soil bioengineering and nature-based solutions used to mitigate these processes under extreme rainfall. A structured search covered literature published from 1996 to 24 August 2026, complemented by citation tracking and qualitative methodological appraisal. The final evidence base comprised 63 documents: 61 technical sources and two methodological guidelines. Evidence was classified by hydrological and mechanical mechanism, intervention type, establishment stage, maintenance demand, and network-scale applicability. Herbaceous cover, hydroseeding, biodegradable blankets, live stakes, fascines, brush layers, and vegetated crib structures can reduce erosion and increase near-surface soil resistance. Their effectiveness, however, declines when runoff becomes concentrated, drainage is deficient, the potential slip surface extends below the rooting zone, or vegetation establishment fails. The most robust response to severe storms is provided by hybrid systems combining drainage, toe protection, temporary surface protection, and biological reinforcement. The review advances the field by connecting performance, maintenance, and scalability in a decision matrix for road slopes, including criteria for tropical climates characterized by high rainfall intensity and operational constraints.

keywords: soil bioengineering, slope stability, road slopes, maintenance

Gray, D. H. y Sotir, R. B. (1996). Biotechnical and Soil Bioengineering Slope Stabilization: A Practical Guide for Erosion Control. New York: Wiley.

A. Stokes, C. Atger, A. G. Bengough, T. Fourcaud y R. C. Sidle (2009). "Desirable plant root traits for protecting natural and engineered slopes against landslides". Plant and Soil, vol. 324, pp. 1-30, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0159-y.

B. Reubens, J. Poesen, F. Danjon, G. Geudens y B. Muys (2007). "The role of fine and coarse roots in shallow slope stability and soil erosion control with a focus on root system architecture: a review". Trees, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 385-402, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-007-0132-4.

G. Gyssels, J. Poesen, E. Bochet y Y. Li (2005). "Impact of plant roots on the resistance of soils to erosion by water: a review". Progress in Physical Geography, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 189-217, https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133305pp443ra.

Stokes, A. et al. (2014). "Ecological mitigation of hillslope instability: ten key issues facing researchers and practitioners". Plant and Soil, vol. 377, núms. 1-2, pp. 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2044-6.

T. de Jesús Arce-Mojica, U. Nehren, K. Sudmeier-Rieux, P. J. Miranda y D. Anhuf (2019). "Nature-based solutions (NbS) for reducing the risk of shallow landslides: Where do we stand?". International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, vol. 41, art. 101293, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101293.

S. Bordoloi and C. W. W. Ng (2020). "The effects of vegetation traits and their stability functions in bio-engineered slopes: A perspective review". Engineering Geology, vol. 275, art. 105742, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105742.

T. Lann, H. Bao, H. Lan, H. Zheng, C. Yan y J. Peng (2024). "Hydro-mechanical effects of vegetation on slope stability: A review". Science of the Total Environment, vol. 926, art. 171691, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171691.

G. B. Bischetti, G. De Cesare, S. B. Mickovski, H. P. Rauch, M. Schwarz y R. Stangl (2021). "Design and temporal issues in Soil Bioengineering structures for the stabilisation of shallow soil movements". Ecological Engineering, vol. 169, art. 106309, pp. 1-14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106309.

I. Murgia, F. Giadrossich, Z. Mao, D. Cohen, G. F. Capra y M. Schwarz (2022). "Modeling shallow landslides and root reinforcement: A review". Ecological Engineering, vol. 181, art. 106671, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106671.

D. Dorairaj and N. Osman (2021). "Present practices and emerging opportunities in bioengineering for slope stabilization in Malaysia: An overview". PeerJ, vol. 9, art. e10477, https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10477.

S. N. A. Tarmidzi et al. (2026). "A decade of soil bioengineering for erosion control in Malaysia: Progress, challenges, and future directions". International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 23, art. 319, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-026-07080-w.

M. J. Page et al. (2021). "The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews". BMJ, vol. 372, art. n71, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71.

G. M. Tawfik et al. (2019). "A step by step guide for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis with simulation data". Tropical Medicine and Health, vol. 47, art. 46, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-019-0165-6.

A. Petrone and F. Preti (2008). "Suitability of soil bio-engineering techniques in Central America: a case study in Nicaragua". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, vol. 12, pp. 1241-1248, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-12-1241-2008.

A. Petrone and F. Preti (2010). "Soil bio-engineering for risk mitigation and environmental restoration in a humid tropical area". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, vol. 14, pp. 239-250, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-239-2010.

F. Preti and F. Giadrossich (2009). "Root reinforcement and slope bio-engineering stabilization by Spanish Broom (Spartium junceum L.)". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 1713-1726, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-13-1713-2009.

W. Lammeraner, H. P. Rauch y G. Laaha (2005). "Implementation and monitoring of soil bio-engineering measures at a landslide in the Middle Mountains of Nepal". Plant and Soil, vol. 278, pp. 159-170, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-7012-8.

Lewis, L., Hagen, S. y Salisbury, S. L. (2001). Soil Bioengineering for Slope Stabilization. Research Report WA-RD 491.1. Olympia: Washington State Department of Transportation.

H. Luo, T. Zhao, M. Dong, J. Gao, X. Peng, Y. Guo, Z. Wang y C. Liang (2013). "Field studies on the effects of three geotextiles on runoff and erosion of road slope in Beijing, China". CATENA, vol. 109, pp. 150-156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.04.004.

Liu, Y.-J., Hu, J.-M., Wang, T.-W., Cai, C.-F., Li, Z.-X. y Zhang, Y. (2016). "Effects of vegetation cover and road-concentrated flow on hillslope erosion in rainfall and scouring simulation tests in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China". CATENA, vol. 136, pp. 108-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.06.006.

Y.-J. Liu, T.-W. Wang, C.-F. Cai, Z.-X. Li y D.-B. Cheng (2014). "Effects of vegetation on runoff generation, sediment yield and soil shear strength on road-side slopes under a simulation rainfall test in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China". Science of the Total Environment, vols. 485-486, pp. 93-102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.053.

Álvarez-Mozos, J., Abad, E., Giménez, R., Campo, M. A., Goñi, M., Arive, M., Casalí, J., Díez, J. y Diego, I. (2014). "Evaluation of erosion control geotextiles on steep slopes. Part 1: Effects on runoff and soil loss". CATENA, vol. 118, pp. 168-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.05.018.

E. Bochet and P. García-Fayos (2004). "Factors controlling vegetation establishment and water erosion on motorway slopes in Valencia, Spain". Restoration Ecology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 166-174, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1061-2971.2004.0325.x.

Bochet, E., García-Fayos, P. y Tormo, J. (2007). "Road Slope Revegetation in Semiarid Mediterranean Environments. Part I: Seed Dispersal and Spontaneous Colonization". Restoration Ecology, vol. 15, núm. 1, pp. 88-96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2006.00193.x.

Tormo, J., Bochet, E. y García-Fayos, P. (2007). "Roadfill Revegetation in Semiarid Mediterranean Environments. Part II: Topsoiling, Species Selection, and Hydroseeding". Restoration Ecology, vol. 15, núm. 1, pp. 97-102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2006.00194.x.

S. B. Mickovski and L. P. H. van Beek (2009). "Root morphology and effects on soil reinforcement and slope stability of young vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) plants grown in semi-arid climate". Plant and Soil, vol. 324, pp. 43-56, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0130-y.

H. Rahardjo, A. Satyanaga, E. C. Leong, V. A. Santoso y Y. S. Ng (2014). "Performance of an instrumented slope covered with shrubs and deep-rooted grass". Soils and Foundations, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 417-425, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.04.010.

Ng, C. W. W., Leung, A. K., Yu, R. y Kamchoom, V. (2016). "Hydrological effects of live poles on transient seepage in an unsaturated soil slope: centrifuge and numerical study". Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol. 143, núm. 3, art. 04016106, pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001616.

T. Liang et al. (2017). "Scaling of the reinforcement of soil slopes by living plants in a geotechnical centrifuge". Ecological Engineering, vol. 109, pp. 207-227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.06.067.

Jeffery Nazrien Ng, Aizat Mohd Taib, Irfan Haziq Razali, Norinah Abd Rahman, Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar, Othman A. Karim et al. (2022). "The Effect of Extreme Rainfall Events on Riverbank Slope Behaviour". Frontiers in Environmental Science, vol. 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.859427.

Ruo-feng Feng, Georgios Fourtakas, Benedict D. Rogers y Doménico Lombardi (2022). "Two-phase fully-coupled smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) model for unsaturated soils and its application to rainfall-induced slope collapse". Computers and Geotechnics, vol. 151, art. 104964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2022.104964.

Xin Gu, Lin Wang, Qiang Ou y Wengang Zhang (2022). "Efficient stochastic analysis of unsaturated slopes subjected to various rainfall intensities and patterns". Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 14, núm. 1, art. 101490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2022.101490.

Yu Zhuang, Aiguo Xing, Yuehua Jiang, Qiang Sun, Jinkai Yan y Yanbo Zhang (2022). "Typhoon, rainfall and trees jointly cause landslides in coastal regions". Engineering Geology, vol. 298, art. 106561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2022.106561.

Thapthai Chaithong (2022). "Influence of changes in extreme daily rainfall distribution on the stability of residual soil slopes". Big Earth Data, vol. 7, núm. 1, pp. 101-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/20964471.2022.2046306.

Yongdong Yang, Hai Liu, Hongfei Li, Shengrui Su, Wanfeng Liu, Yunxiu Dong et al. (2022). "Evaluation of the Reinforcement Performance of Loess Slopes Affected by Rainfall Infiltration". Geofluids, vol. 2022, pp. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5359809.

Xiaohua Pan, Jian Chu y Liang Cheng (2023). "Reduction of rainfall infiltration in soil slope using a controllable biocementation method". Biogeotechnics, vol. 1, núm. 2, art. 100023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bgtech.2023.100023.

Xin Liu y Yu Wang (2023). "Probabilistic hazard analysis of rainfall-induced landslides at a specific slope considering rainfall uncertainty and soil spatial variability". Computers and Geotechnics, vol. 162, art. 105706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2023.105706.

Hu Jiang, Qiang Zou, Bin Zhou, Yao Jiang, Junfang Cui, Hongkun Yao et al. (2023). "Estimation of Shallow Landslide Susceptibility Incorporating the Impacts of Vegetation on Slope Stability". International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, vol. 14, núm. 4, pp. 618-635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-023-00507-9.

Shuhai Wen, Jiao Wang, Yanpei Li, Yu‐Rong Liu y Mingan Shao (2023). "Earthworms reduce nutrient loss from loess soil slopes under simulated rain". Geoderma, vol. 438, art. 116654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116654.

Lu Xia, Bingqin Zhao, Ting Luo, Yakun Xu, Shiwei Guo, Wennian Xu et al. (2023). "Effects of Polyacrylamide, Biochar, and Palm Fiber on Soil Erosion at the Early Stage of Vegetation Concrete Slope Construction". Sustainability, vol. 15, núm. 7, art. 5744. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15075744.

Shue Wei, Kuandi Zhang, Chenglong Liu, Youdong Cen y Junqiang Xia (2023). "Effects of different vegetation components on soil erosion and response to rainfall intensity under simulated rainfall". CATENA, vol. 235, art. 107652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107652.

Qunzhi Cheng, Kepeng Hou, Huafen Sun y Xiangdong Niu (2024). "Numerical Simulation of Rainfall-Induced Erosion on Infiltration and Slope Stability". Water, vol. 16, núm. 11, art. 1517. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111517.

Xin Gu, Laike Song, Xiaozhou Xia y Cheng Yu (2024). "Finite Element Method-Peridynamics Coupled Analysis of Slope Stability Affected by Rainfall Erosion". Water, vol. 16, núm. 15, art. 2210. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152210.

Zhichao Zhang, Huaming Lu, Xuefeng Tang, Kan Liu, Longzhen Ye y Guoliang Ma (2024). "Field investigation of the feasibility of MICP for Mitigating Natural Rainfall-Induced erosion in gravelly clay slope". Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, vol. 83, núm. 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-024-03909-1.

Qian Xu, Juying Jiao, Ziqi Zhang, Mengmeng Li, Xiqin Yan, Yulan Chen et al. (2024). "Functional connectivity related to road linear erosion at rainfall event scale in an agricultural watershed on the Loess Plateau". CATENA, vol. 243, art. 108170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.108170.

Zekang Cai, Jiabo Xie, Yu‐Chi Chen, Yushuo Yang, Chenfeng Wang y Jian Wang (2024). "Rigid Vegetation Affects Slope Flow Velocity". Water, vol. 16, núm. 16, art. 2240. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162240.

Amanda DiBiagio, Vittoria Capobianco, Amy Oen y Lena M. Tallaksen (2024). "State-of-the-art: parametrization of hydrological and mechanical reinforcement effects of vegetation in slope stability models for shallow landslides". Landslides, vol. 21, núm. 10, pp. 2417-2446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-024-02300-1.

Xianghua Song, Yong Tan y Ye Lu (2024). "Microscopic analyses of the reinforcement mechanism of plant roots in different morphologies on the stability of soil slopes under heavy rainfall". CATENA, vol. 241, art. 108018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.108018.

Siqi Zhang, Keli Zhang y Keli Zhang (2025). "Assessing the impact of extreme rainfall and slope surface conditions on runoff and erosion based on a big database in Southwest China’s karst region". Journal of Hydrology, vol. 659, art. 133273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133273.

Naichang Zhang, Zhaohui Xia, Peng Li, Qitao Chen, Ganggang Ke, Fan Yue et al. (2025). "The impact of rainfall and slope on hillslope runoff and erosion depending on machine learning". Frontiers in Environmental Science, vol. 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1580149.

Yabo Zhao, Shumei Sui y Long Hai (2025). "Effects of Vegetation and Slope Gradient on Rainfall‐Induced Erosion of Reconstructed Iron Tailings Slopes: An Experimental Study". Land Degradation and Development, vol. 36, núm. 13, pp. 4703-4717. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.5663.

Zimiao He, Gangxiang Yuan, Shilong Hao, Haoqiang Tong y Renshan Zhang (2025). "Mechanism Analysis of the Effects of Rainfall Intensity, Grass Coverage, and Slope on Slope Erosion Processes". Water, vol. 17, núm. 8, art. 1194. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17081194.

Yuyuan Chen, Hemanta Hazarika y Nadella Marchelina (2025). "Effect of Bio-Cementation Level and Rainfall Intensity on Surface Erosion Resistance of Biotreated Slope Using PEICP Method". Materials, vol. 18, núm. 7, art. 1662. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18071662.

Supphanut Chuenjaidee, Panich Voottipruex, Pornkasem Jongpradist, Patara Kalayasri y Pitthaya Jamsawang (2025). "Integrated performance of geocells and Ruzi grass for slope erosion control under variable rainfall and slope conditions". Journal of Soils and Sediments, vol. 25, núm. 3, pp. 732-750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-025-03966-3.

Federico Preti, Andrea Dani, Yamuna Giambastiani y Emanuele Giachi (2025). "Slope stability time evolution of a shallow landslide restored by Soil and Water Bioengineering (SWBE) techniques: A case study in Northwest Tuscany (Italy)". Ecological Engineering, vol. 214, art. 107570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2025.107570.

Jorge Albuja-Sánchez, Giraldez Solano y Andreína Damián-Chalán (2025). "Bioengineering of soils for ground improvement and stability: A review of nature-based technologies". Environmental Challenges, vol. 20, art. 101293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2025.101293.

Gaoliang Tao, Li Guo, Henglin Xiao, Qingsheng Chen, Sanjay Nimbalkar, Shiju Feng et al. (2025). "Assessment of Vegetation Cover and Rainfall Infiltration Effects on Slope Stability". Applied Sciences, vol. 15, núm. 17, art. 9831. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179831.

Lanqian Feng, Yulan Chen, Mingming Guo, Wenlong Wang, Yibao Lou, Zhuoxin Chen et al. (2025). "Effect of dominant vegetation under long-term natural and artificial vegetation restoration modes on gully slope stability considering rainfall and topography interactions". CATENA, vol. 256, art. 109067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2025.109067.

Liang Dong, Genzhu Wang, Haizhu Liu, Xinliang Wu, Tao Yang, Chenghao Zheng et al. (2025). "Parent materials regulate the effects of rainfall intensity and slope gradient on interrill erosion processes in the mountainous canyon regions of Southwest China". CATENA, vol. 256, art. 109092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2025.109092.

Tahmina Akter, Saumik Acharya, Sayed Jaber Al-Hossain y Golam Kibria Robbani (2026). "Vetiver grass for road slope protection through soil erosion and runoff reduction in a haor area of the Sunamganj district". Research in Agricultural Engineering. https://doi.org/10.17221/124/2025-rae.

Guang Ran, Xiangzhou Xu, Ying Zhao, Altaf Ali Siyal y Yuanjun Zhu (2026). "How Do Vegetation Patterns Control Gravity Erosion in Slope–Gully Systems Under Heavy Rainfall on the Loess Plateau of China?". Land Degradation and Development, vol. 37, núm. 10, pp. 5356-5371. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.70457.

Janaki Ramudu Dudekula, Chinu Rani y Venkatesh Noolu (2026). "Application of biomineral and chemical stabilized soil to moderate the rainfall based slope erosion and to improve the stability of slopes". Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, vol. 11, núm. 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-026-02706-x.

license

How to Cite

Montufar, G. (2026). Bioengineering and Nature-Based Solutions for Stabilizing Road Slopes During Extreme Rainfall: A Structured Review of Performance, Maintenance, and Scalability. Publicaciones E Investigación, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.22490/25394088.11964

Download Citation

Almétricas